In the mid-to-late 1990s, microarrays were developed as highly parallel assays to measure RNA and DNA ( 91, 107). The progression from the discovery of the structure of DNA to the ability to sequence it as a routine assay has had several inflection points. DNA sequence has even been proposed as a highly efficient storage mechanism for large-scale data ( 22). Dozens of next-generation sequencing companies and technologies have been created, and the corresponding field of bioinformatics has exploded as a major scientific and training discipline. Since then, genomics has evolved at an amazing pace. The development of the polymerase chain reaction ( 103, 104), the widespread availability of high-quality nucleic acid–modifying enzymes, and the development of fluorescent automated DNA sequencing enabled the Human Genome Project to deliver the first draft of the human genome sequence in 2001 ( 64, 123) and the first completed draft three years later ( 54).
As with many technologies, advances across multiple fields were brought together to achieve routine sequencing at the genome scale. Since the fundamental discovery of the structure of DNA ( 128) and the pioneering development of methods to detect the sequence of DNA bases by foundational approaches such as Maxam & Gilbert's technique ( 76) and Sanger sequencing ( 106), the field of DNA sequencing has rapidly evolved in capacity, capability, and applications.
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